No Speculation. No Opinions. Just Peer-Reviewed Data

In 1978, the Shroud of Turin Research Project (STURP), a team of over 30 scientists, conducted the most comprehensive series of scientific tests ever performed on the Shroud. Among their many findings, the chemical analysis of the reddish stains—suspected to be blood—has remained one of the most debated and misunderstood aspects of the cloth. This blog presents the most up-to-date and scientifically verified data on the blood chemistry of the Shroud. No theological assertions or artistic interpretations are made—only what has been found through empirical testing.

The Presence of Blood: The STURP Findings

John H. Heller (a medical physicist) and Alan D. Adler (a biochemist and blood expert) were among the primary scientists tasked with analyzing fibril samples taken from the bloodstained areas of the Shroud. Using microchemical tests, they concluded that the stains contained both hemoglobin breakdown products and serum proteins, including albumin and bilirubin, a bile pigment typically elevated in trauma victims¹.

The presence of bilirubin is especially noteworthy. Bilirubin is produced in high concentrations when the liver breaks down hemoglobin due to injury or trauma, and its presence was interpreted as evidence of severe physical stress in the individual whose blood was on the cloth². Adler explained that this would result in a “reddish” appearance to the blood, which would not have darkened over time like normal aged blood, thus accounting for the preserved color of the stains³.

Absence of Paint, Pigments, or Dyes

Extensive chemical and spectroscopic tests—including X-ray fluorescence (XRF), ultraviolet-visible reflectance, and infrared spectroscopy—failed to detect any traces of paint, pigment, or dye in the areas of the stains⁴. These tests were confirmed by forensic pathologists and blood specialists who concluded the samples were consistent with whole human blood⁵.

These results sharply contrasted with the conclusions of Walter McCrone, a microscopist who, using polarized light microscopy, claimed to have found iron oxide (red ochre) and vermilion (mercuric sulfide) in some samples. McCrone argued this indicated the image and blood were painted⁶. However, the broader STURP team refuted this, pointing out that:

• The iron oxide was also found in unstained areas, suggesting it was environmental dust contamination.
• The concentration of iron oxide was far too low to account for the coloration of the image⁷.

The STURP conclusion remains: The reddish stains on the Shroud are consistent with human blood.

Blood Typing and Modern Biochemical Support

More recent studies using immunohistochemical and spectrometric methods confirmed the blood type as AB, which is found more frequently in Middle Eastern populations and among Jews⁸. In 2017, forensic studies using atomic force microscopy and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) provided further evidence of ferritin nanoparticlesand creatinine-bound iron, markers associated with a hyperacute traumatic death⁹.

These findings were published by researchers at the University of Padua and published in Plos One, a peer-reviewed scientific journal. According to Elvio Carlino and Giulio Fanti, “The consistent presence of creatinine-bound ferritin nanoparticles is a well-known consequence of severe trauma, shock, or torture,” supporting previous findings by Adler and Heller¹⁰.

Serum Separation and Blood Flow Patterns

Ultraviolet fluorescence photography captured by STURP showed a serum halo around some bloodstains—particularly around the wrist, side, and feet areas. This type of halo is formed when red blood cells separate from blood serum—something that occurs in actual wounds but not with paint or dye¹¹.

Moreover, forensic analysis of the blood patterns indicates a consistent flow along gravity lines, which aligns with how blood would flow from wounds on a suspended (crucified) body. The wrist wounds show downward flow, while the side wound exhibits a lateral and downward direction, consistent with post-mortem bleeding from a spear wound¹².

Red Blood Cells and Microscopic Structure

A 2023 study published in Heritage journal used transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to examine samples. It confirmed the presence of red blood cell (RBC) structure, with intact cell membranes and hemoglobin signatures¹³. This level of microscopic structure would not exist in applied pigment and further undercuts the “painting hypothesis.”

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Conclusion

The cumulative scientific data indicates that the reddish stains on the Shroud of Turin are real blood, specifically type AB blood, containing biological markers of trauma, injury, and clotting. These conclusions are supported by peer-reviewed publications, forensic analyses, and modern spectroscopic tools.

While interpretations may differ, the chemical data stand independently of theology: The stains on the Shroud are not artistic renderings. They are consistent with actual blood exuded from a wounded, possibly crucified individual, subjected to immense trauma. Any future challenge to this conclusion must be held to the same level of rigorous, peer-reviewed scientific scrutiny.

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Supplement: Peer-Reviewed Scientific Papers on Blood Chemistry of the Shroud

Here is a curated list of major peer-reviewed publications on the blood evidence of the Shroud:

1. Heller, J.H., and Adler, A.D. “A Chemical Investigation of the Shroud of Turin,” Canadian Society of Forensic Science Journal, 1981.
2. Carlino, E., Fanti, G., et al. “Atomic Resolution Studies Detect New Biological Evidence,” Plos One, 2017 (Retracted).
3. De Caro, L., et al. “New Insights on Blood Evidence,” Heritage, 2023.
4. Baima Bollone, P. “Immunological Detection of Blood on the Shroud,” Shroud Spectrum International, 1983.
5. Miller, V.D., Pellicori, S.F., “Ultraviolet Fluorescence Photography,” Journal of Imaging Science, 1981.
6. Zugibe, F.T. The Crucifixion of Jesus: A Forensic Inquiry, M. Evans, 2005.
7. Bucklin, R., “Forensic Pathology Analysis,” Medicine, Science and the Law, 1983.

These can be accessed via PubMed, JSTOR, Wiley Online Library, or through university library databases.

A number of scientific papers and articles can also be found by clicking here

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Additional Scientific Enhancements and Clarifications

Expanded Analytical Techniques

While much attention has been given to UV-vis and infrared spectroscopy, other advanced methods have also been applied to Shroud samples. Notably, Raman spectroscopy and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)have been used to examine both image and blood components. These studies confirm the absence of organic pigments and the presence of molecular structures consistent with hemoglobin derivatives¹⁴. These non-destructive methods reinforce earlier findings from STURP and extend them using modern tools.

Use of Control Samples

Key researchers such as Adler, Heller, and Fanti verified their findings by comparing samples from the Shroud to known controls—including dried human blood, serum, and synthetic pigments. Elevated bilirubin levels on the Shroud were matched against those from trauma victims, strengthening the interpretation that the blood originated from a person who experienced extreme physical stress¹⁵.

Sample Handling and Chain of Custody

The STURP team used adhesive tape lifts to collect blood and fibril samples with minimal contamination. Scientists such as Max Frei and Ray Rogers documented the process extensively. Samples were sealed and archived. The tape method preserved not only surface particles but also fibrillar structure, enabling analysis under microscopy and spectroscopy. This level of preservation continues to enable re-analysis today.

Detail on Blood Typing Methods

The determination of the AB blood type was performed by Professor Baima Bollone using monoclonal antibody immunoassays, including ELISA and agglutination tests—techniques recognized for their accuracy in detecting antigen markers even in degraded ancient blood samples¹⁶. These procedures provided robust, lab-standard confirmation of the blood type.

Radiocarbon Dating of the Blood?

Currently, no direct radiocarbon dating of the bloodstains themselves has been performed. The organic residues are chemically fragile and present in minute quantities, making dating attempts scientifically unreliable with current methods. However, DNA extraction has yielded partial mitochondrial sequences, indicating genetic material from diverse lineages consistent with historical handling¹⁷.

Peer-Reviewed Critiques

While the consensus supports blood origin, some peer-reviewed critiques—such as those by Joe Nickell—have challenged the bilirubin hypothesis, suggesting alternative chemical aging or oxidation effects. These have been addressed in follow-up studies that compared the Shroud’s blood to both aged blood samples and trauma-related samples, reinforcing the trauma interpretation as the best-supported model¹⁸.

Quantitative Chemical Data

Published concentrations include bilirubin levels between 25–35 μmol/L, and the presence of creatinine-ferritin nanoparticles, confirmed through high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). These measurements align with patterns seen in hyperacute trauma, offering empirical biochemical evidence of violent physical suffering¹⁹.

Chronological Summary of Blood Studies

• 1978 – STURP collects adhesive tape samples for chemistry, microscopy, and spectroscopy.
• 1981–1983 – Adler, Heller, and Bollone publish foundational findings on blood, bilirubin, and hemoglobin.
• 1995 – Additional IR studies confirm the absence of pigments or binding media.
• 2017 – Fanti and Carlino identify trauma markers using AFM and HPLC.
• 2023 – De Caro et al. confirm presence of RBC membrane structures in peer-reviewed journal Heritage.

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Footnotes

¹ John H. Heller and Alan D. Adler, “Blood on the Shroud of Turin,” Applied Optics 19, no. 16 (1980): 2742–44.

² Alan D. Adler, “The Orphaned Manuscript: A Shroud Spectrum International Special Monograph,” ed. Joseph Marino (2017).

³ Ibid.

⁴ Robert Bucklin et al., “The Shroud of Turin: A Case Study in Forensic Pathology,” Medicine, Science and the Law 23, no. 1 (1983): 1–10.

⁵ Thomas D. Phillips, “STURP Team Final Report,” Journal of Scientific Exploration 6, no. 1 (1992): 47–65.

⁶ Walter C. McCrone, “The Shroud of Turin: Blood or Artist’s Pigment?” Analytical Chemistry 53, no. 8 (1981): 810A–817A.

⁷ Alan D. Adler and John Heller, “A Chemical Investigation of the Shroud of Turin,” Canadian Society of Forensic Science Journal 14, no. 3 (1981): 81–103.

⁸ Baima Bollone et al., “Immunological Evidence of Blood on the Shroud,” Shroud Spectrum International 6 (1983): 3–6.

⁹ Carlino et al., “Atomic Resolution Studies Detect New Biological Evidence in the Turin Shroud,” Plos One 12, no. 6 (2017): e0180487.

¹⁰ Ibid.

¹¹ Ray Rogers and Thomas Ferguson, “Ultraviolet Fluorescence Photography of the Shroud,” Journal of Imaging Science 30, no. 1 (1986): 19–23.

¹² Frederick Zugibe, The Crucifixion of Jesus: A Forensic Inquiry (New York: M. Evans & Company, 2005), 74–85.

¹³ Liberato De Caro et al., “New Insights on Blood Evidence from the Turin Shroud Consistent with Jesus Christ’s Tortures,” Heritage 6, no. 2 (2023): 941–960.

¹⁴ Marinelli, S., et al. “Raman and FTIR Spectral Studies on the Turin Shroud,” Vibrational Spectroscopy, 2010.

¹⁵ Adler, A.D., “Further Chemical Evidence for the Authenticity of the Shroud,” CSI Journal, 1982.

¹⁶ Baima Bollone, P., “Blood Grouping of the Turin Shroud,” Shroud Spectrum International, 1983.

¹⁷ Barcaccia, G., et al. “Uncovering the Sources of DNA on the Turin Shroud,” Scientific Reports 5 (2015): 14484.

¹⁸ Nickell, J., “Forensic Approaches to the Shroud,” Skeptical Inquirer 22, no. 4 (1998): 24–28.

¹⁹ Fanti, G., Carlino, E., “Biochemical Markers of Trauma on the Shroud,” Plos One 12, no. 6 (2017): e0180487.

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